Theory and Observation in Science

Summary: The article explores the intricate relationship between empirical evidence, theory, and observation in scientific practice, highlighting the evolution of philosophical thought from 20th century logical empiricists to contemporary perspectives.

1. Introduction

Observations serve as the basis for evaluating scientific hypotheses and theories. However, their evidential value depends on the adequacy of the theoretical claims they are based on.

2. Observation and Data

2.1 Traditional Empiricism

Historically, philosophers like Aristotle and Francis Bacon emphasized the importance of observations in developing scientific theories…

2.2 The Irrelevance of Observation Per Se

The article critiques the notion that pure observation is the foundation of scientific knowledge…

2.3 Data and Phenomena

Philosophers now prefer to think in terms of “data” rather than “observations” to infer facts about more stable phenomena.

3. Theory and Value Ladeness

Empirical results are often influenced by theoretical commitments, leading to potential biases.

3.1 Perception

Examples illustrate how theoretical commitments can distort observations.

3.2 Assuming the Theory to be Tested

Using a theory to test itself can lead to circular reasoning, though often necessary for experimental design.

3.3 Semantics

Theoretical commitments may influence the meanings of observation descriptions.

3.4 Values

Values can enter scientific reasoning at various stages, from framing research questions to interpreting data.

3.5 Reuse

Empirical results can be repurposed across different contexts, emphasizing the importance of metadata.

4. The Epistemic Value of Empirical Evidence

4.1 Confirmation

Empirical evidence supports the truth of theories by verifying predictions.

4.2 Saving the Phenomena

Theories are evaluated based on their ability to predict observable phenomena.

4.3 Empirical Adequacy

A theory is empirically adequate if it can account for observable phenomena.

5. Conclusion

The article advocates for a nuanced understanding of the relationship between theory and observation, emphasizing integration rather than pure empiricism.

In summary, theory and empirical evidence work together to advance scientific understanding.